Cognitive Science Vocabulary in English

Working memory is a cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information during complex tasks such as reasoning, comprehension, and learning. Unlike long-term memory, working memory has a limited capacity. Alan Baddeley proposed an influential model consisting of a phonological loop (for verbal information), a visuospatial sketchpad (for visual information), and a central executive that coordinates these components. Working memory capacity is strongly associated with general intelligence and academic achievement.

A cognitive bias is a systematic pattern of deviation from rationality in judgment, resulting from the brain's use of mental shortcuts (heuristics) to process information quickly. Examples include confirmation bias (seeking information that confirms existing beliefs), anchoring bias (over-relying on the first piece of information encountered), and availability bias (overestimating the probability of events that come easily to mind). Cognitive biases have practical implications for fields from medicine to financial investing.

Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganise itself by forming new neural connections in response to experience, learning, injury, or environmental change. It refers to the fact that the brain is not a fixed, unchanging structure but a dynamic system that adapts throughout life. Neuroplasticity is the biological basis of learning and memory. It also underpins rehabilitation after stroke or brain injury, as undamaged regions can sometimes take over functions previously performed by damaged areas.

Sensation refers to the raw data received by sensory organs — the detection of light, sound, touch, taste, or smell. Perception is the cognitive process of organising, interpreting, and giving meaning to that sensory information. The same sensation can lead to different perceptions depending on context, prior experience, attention, and expectations. Cognitive scientists study how the brain constructs a coherent, meaningful picture of the world from fragmented sensory input.

Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring others. It is a limited resource that determines which information enters conscious awareness for further processing. Researchers distinguish between sustained attention (maintaining focus over time), selective attention (focusing on one stimulus while filtering out distractors), divided attention (attending to multiple tasks simultaneously), and executive attention (top-down control of focus). The cocktail party effect is a classic demonstration of selective attention.

Dual-process theory proposes that human cognition operates through two distinct systems: System 1, which is fast, automatic, intuitive, and largely unconscious; and System 2, which is slow, deliberate, effortful, and conscious. Daniel Kahneman popularised this framework in Thinking, Fast and Slow. System 1 handles routine judgments and pattern recognition, while System 2 is engaged for complex reasoning. Many cognitive biases arise from System 1 generating intuitions that System 2 fails to adequately override.

A schema is a mental framework or template that organises knowledge and expectations based on prior experience, guiding the interpretation of new information. Schemas help us process complex information quickly but can lead to systematic errors when new information does not fit existing frameworks. A script is a type of schema for familiar sequences of events that allows efficient navigation of routine situations. Schema theory was developed by Frederic Bartlett and later expanded by Jean Piaget in his model of cognitive development.

Executive function refers to higher-order cognitive processes that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive abilities. Core executive functions include inhibitory control (suppressing automatic responses), cognitive flexibility (switching between tasks or perspectives), and working memory. These processes are primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex. Executive function is essential for goal-directed behaviour, problem-solving, planning, and self-regulation. Deficits are associated with ADHD, traumatic brain injury, and various developmental conditions.

Group terms by process: memory (encoding, consolidation, retrieval, working memory), attention (selective, sustained, divided), perception, and higher cognition (executive function, decision-making, metacognition). Reading open-access cognitive science textbooks and following researchers like Daniel Kahneman or Lisa Feldman Barrett on public platforms builds vocabulary in engaging contexts. Podcasts such as Hidden Brain cover cognitive science topics accessibly in English. Practise by applying the terms to describe your own cognitive experiences, which deepens both understanding and retention.