Academic and formal English relies on a small set of Latin-derived abbreviations that appear constantly in essays, textbooks, research papers and citations. Unlike texting slang or gaming shorthand, these abbreviations are fully acceptable in the most formal writing you'll ever produce — in fact, using them correctly is a mark of academic fluency.
This reference explains the Latin and formal abbreviations you're most likely to meet in university reading, IELTS or Cambridge exam texts, and academic writing, including the classic e.g. vs i.e. confusion that trips up even confident learners.
Abbreviation Reference Table
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
|---|---|
| e.g. | for example (exempli gratia) |
| i.e. | that is / in other words (id est) |
| etc. | and so on (et cetera) |
| cf. | compare with (confer) |
| et al. | and others (et alii) |
| ibid. | in the same place (ibidem) |
| NB | note well (nota bene) |
| viz. | namely (videlicet) |
| vs. | against / versus (versus) |
| approx. | approximately |
| n.d. | no date (used in citations when a source has no publication date) |
| p. / pp. | page / pages |
| ed. | editor / edition |
| et seq. | and the following (et sequens) |
| op. cit. | in the work already cited (opere citato) |
Example Sentences
Below is one example sentence for each abbreviation above, showing how it is actually used in context.
Other Abbreviation Groups
Practise Abbreviations
Test your recall with free interactive exercises — flash cards, matching, and quizzes.
Start Practising NowFrequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between e.g. and i.e.?
E.g. (“exempli gratia”) means “for example” and introduces one or more examples from a larger set: “citrus fruits, e.g. oranges and lemons.” I.e. (“id est”) means “that is” and restates or clarifies exactly what was just said: “the capital, i.e. London.” Use e.g. for examples and i.e. for clarification.
Do e.g. and i.e. need a comma after them?
In modern British and American style, both e.g. and i.e. are usually followed by a comma: “several cities, e.g., Paris and Rome.” Some British style guides omit the comma, so check the style guide you're following, but including it is rarely wrong.
What does et al. mean and when is it used?
Et al. (“et alii”, “and others”) shortens a list of authors in academic citations when there are three or more: “Smith et al. (2024) argue that...” instead of naming every author. The full stop after “al” is required because it's a truncation of “alii”.
What does NB mean at the start of a sentence?
NB stands for “nota bene”, Latin for “note well”. It flags something important the reader should pay special attention to, usually at the start of a note or instruction: “NB: late submissions will not be accepted.”
Is it correct to write "etc." at the end of every list?
No — “etc.” should only be used when the remaining items are genuinely obvious from context, and it's best avoided in formal academic writing where precise, complete lists are expected. Overusing etc. can look vague or lazy.
What is the difference between cf. and e.g.?
Cf. (“confer”, “compare”) directs the reader to compare or contrast with another source or point: “cf. Chapter 3 for a different view.” E.g. simply introduces an example, without asking for comparison.
What does ibid. mean in footnotes?
Ibid. (“ibidem”, “in the same place”) is used in footnotes and endnotes to refer to the source cited immediately before, saving the writer from repeating the full citation: “Ibid., p. 42.”
Should Latin abbreviations be italicised?
Style varies. Many academic style guides now treat common Latin abbreviations like e.g., i.e. and etc. as fully assimilated English and don't italicise them, while less common ones like op. cit. or et seq. are sometimes italicised. Follow whichever style guide (APA, MLA, Chicago) your institution requires.
Is "vs." the same as "v."?
Both abbreviate “versus”. “Vs.” is common in general and sports writing (“Team A vs. Team B”), while the single-letter “v.” is the traditional form used specifically in legal case names (“Smith v. Jones”).
Where can I practise academic and formal abbreviations?
LexFizz's True or False and Cloze Dropdown exercises help you practise choosing the right abbreviation in context, which is exactly the skill tested in IELTS and Cambridge academic reading and writing tasks.