English for Genealogists: Vocabulary for Family History Research

In genealogical research, a transcript is a word-for-word typed or written copy of an original document, preserving exactly what the document says including spellings and abbreviations. An abstract is a summary that extracts only the key genealogical information — names, dates, places, and relationships — without reproducing the full text. Both are useful research tools, but a transcript is more reliable for legal or academic purposes as it captures every word of the original. When citing either in a family history, always note whether you consulted the original document, a transcript, or an abstract.

In English kinship terminology, "removed" indicates a generational difference. "First cousin once removed" means you are one generation apart from a first cousin relationship — either your parent's first cousin, or your first cousin's child. "Twice removed" means two generations apart. The word "removed" can confuse non-native English speakers because it does not mean the relationship is distant or eliminated — it simply counts the generational gap. The number before "cousin" (first, second, third) describes how many generations back you share a common ancestor, while "removed" counts the generational gap between the two people.

Banns (always used in the plural) were the public announcements of an intended marriage, required by the Church of England to be read aloud in the church of each partner on three consecutive Sundays before the wedding. This tradition, dating from medieval canon law, gave any member of the public the opportunity to raise a legal objection to the marriage — for example, if one party was already married. Banns registers are valuable genealogical sources because they record both parties' home parishes, which may differ from the marriage church. They are distinct from a marriage licence, which was an alternative way to marry without waiting for banns.

In historical English legal and church records, "spinster" was the standard legal description for an unmarried woman, regardless of her age. It carried no negative connotation in its time and simply meant "a woman who has never been married." The term derives from the occupation of spinning thread, which unmarried women commonly did. Similarly, "bachelor" meant an unmarried man. These terms appear in English marriage records from roughly the 17th to mid-20th century. Modern genealogists encounter them frequently and should understand them as neutral legal descriptions rather than judgements on the person's character or circumstances.

A brick wall is informal genealogical slang for an ancestor whose origins cannot be traced beyond a certain point — the research stops because no further records can be found. Common brick walls occur before civil registration began, after significant record loss (such as the Irish Public Record Office fire of 1922, which destroyed many historical records), or when ancestors changed their names on immigration. Researchers say they are "hitting a brick wall," "stuck at a brick wall," or working to "break through" or "get past" a brick wall. Strategies include DNA testing, researching siblings and collateral lines, and consulting specialist record repositories.

When writing to English archives for genealogical records, use formal language and be specific. A good request includes: the full name of the person you are researching, approximate dates and places, what type of record you are seeking, and what you already know. Useful phrases include: "I am researching my family history and believe that records relating to [name] may be held in your repository," "I would be grateful if you could search your holdings for...," "I enclose a stamped addressed envelope for your reply" (for UK postal requests), and "Please advise me of any fees involved." Archives are more likely to help efficiently when requests are clear, polite, and specific.

In English, "in-law" is a suffix added to family relationship terms to indicate a relationship created by marriage rather than blood. The core in-law relationships are: mother-in-law (your spouse's mother), father-in-law (your spouse's father), sister-in-law (your spouse's sister, or your sibling's spouse), and brother-in-law (your spouse's brother, or your sibling's spouse). In formal English, the term does not extend further — your spouse's aunt is simply "my wife's aunt," not "my aunt-in-law," though this informal usage does occur in everyday speech. In genealogical records, "in-law" terms sometimes appeared to describe stepfamily relationships, which can cause confusion in historical documents.

Paleography is the study and decipherment of historical handwriting. For genealogists researching English ancestors in records from before roughly 1850, paleography skills are essential because older handwriting styles — particularly Secretary Hand (used from the 16th to early 18th century) and Italic Hand — look very different from modern writing. Letters were formed differently, certain letters looked like others, and common abbreviations were used extensively. The Scottish Records Office and The National Archives both offer free online paleography tutorials specifically for genealogists. Developing basic paleography skills opens access to wills, parish registers, manorial records, and legal documents that are otherwise unreadable.

Good genealogical practice requires citing sources precisely so that any claim can be verified. A standard genealogical citation includes: the name of the record, the repository or website where it was found, the reference or folio number, and the date accessed (for online sources). Genealogists say they have "found evidence," "located a record," "cited a source," or "verified information." They distinguish between "primary sources" (created at the time of the event by a direct witness) and "secondary sources" (created later, from memory or other records). The Genealogical Proof Standard (GPS), widely used in the English-speaking genealogical community, provides formal criteria for evaluating and presenting genealogical conclusions.

DNA genealogy uses genetic testing to identify biological relatives and confirm family relationships. Key terms include: autosomal DNA test (tests DNA inherited from all ancestors; used by Ancestry, 23andMe, FamilyTreeDNA); Y-DNA test (traces the direct paternal line, father's father's father etc.); mtDNA test (traces the direct maternal line); centimorgans (cM, the unit measuring shared DNA — the more cM shared, the closer the relationship); ethnicity estimate (a breakdown of your likely ancestral origins by geographical region); and DNA match (a person identified as a genetic relative on the testing platform). Genealogists "take a DNA test," "upload their DNA results," and "work their matches" to identify how they are connected to genetic relatives.